What is Grammar?
Introduction
When I think of grammar, I think of word usage – which, of course, everyone
butchers.
I despise grammar. I find the rules trite and boring. Grammar (and its enforcers)
need to loosen up and enjoy life more!
Grammar makes my stomach churn.
These comments will strike a chord with many users of this textbook. The term
grammar does not bring pleasant memories to the minds of many people. The term
grammar frequently brings to mind tedious lessons with endless drills, repetition,
and other generally mindless practice, focused on mostly obscure rules of how people
are supposed to write and speak. For native speakers of any given language,
grammar often represents to them the great “mystery” of language, known only to
language specialists or those of older generations, the ones who really know what is
“right”. Many feel that “grammar” is something that they were never taught and that
feel they therefore “don’t know.” Grammar is also often linked to both explicit and
implicit criticisms of people’s use or “misuse” of language, which may have created
a sense of resentment or frustration with the notion of grammar.
Grammar as a Set of Rules
The idea that grammar is a set of rules, often seen as arbitrary or unrealistic, is only
one narrow view of grammar. Such a view is based on the belief that:
grammar must be explicitly taught;
grammar is absolute and fixed, a target or goal that speakers need attain in order
to be “good” speakers or writers of the language;
grammar is inherently difficult and confusing, its mysteries only apparent to
teachers, language mavens, or linguists.
A. DeCapua, Grammar for Teachers, 1
C
Springer 2008
2 1 What is Grammar?
Discovery Activity 1: Making Decisions on Grammaticality
Look at the sentences below.
a. In your opinion, label each sentence as G for grammatical, N for ungrammatical,
and ? for “not sure” or “don’t know”.
b. For those sentences you labeled as N, identify the element or elements that
you think are ungrammatical and explain why you think they are ungrammatical.
c. For those sentences you labeled as ?, if you can, discuss why you are
unsure.
1. She had less problemswith themove to a new school than she thought
she would.
2. She lays in bed all day whenever she gets a migraine headache.
3. My sister Alice, who is older than me, still lives at home.
4. Everyone needs to buy their books before the first day of class.
Discussion: Discovery Activity 1
In all of these sentences there is a difference between casual English and formal
English. In formal English, particularly when written, there are rules that speakers
are taught that must be followed in order for sentences to be considered “correct.”
In the first sentence, few should be used only with nouns we can count, such as
apples, pens, or days while less should be used with nouns we can’t count, such
as math, water, or beauty. According to this rule, the sentence should be She had
fewer problems with the move to the new school than she thought she would (see
Chapter 3).
In the next sentence, there is a formal grammar rule distinguishing between lie
and lay. Lie is a verb that is not followed by an object, while lay is a verb that is
followed by an object. Compare these two sentences:
Cats lie on beds lie = resting or sleeping
Cats lay mice on beds. lay = put
Another way to differentiate these two similar verbs is to describe lay as an action
verb and lie as a non-action verb. According to the rule that tells us that lie
doesn’t take an object but lay does, Sentence (2) needs to be rewritten in formal
English as:
She lies in bed all day long whenever she has a migraine headache.
Grammar as a Set of Rules 3
Adding to the confusion between lie and lay is the fact that the past tense form of
lie is lay. (The past tense of lie is lay). As the distinction is becoming less and less
common, even “serious” publications interchange the two forms, which illustrates
how language, and what is considered acceptable, gradually changes:
Goldmann and Wermusch detected the dried-up river bed of this branch, which had discharged
into the sea west of the present-day city of Barth. The two concluded that large
parts of Vineta must lay buried in the silt of the lagoon north of Barth.
[Bryasac, S. (2003 July/August). Atlantis of the Baltic. Archeology, 64.]
In Sentence (3) there is a grammar rule that dictates I needs to be used here, not me
because than compares two nouns in subject position as in:
My sister Alice, who is older than I, still lives at home.
Nevertheless, for many users of English, I after than sounds stilted or affected in
spoken English and in informal written contexts, such as e-mail or personal correspondence.
In Sentence (4) Everyone needs to buy their books before the first day of class,
the discussion of which pronoun to use is a subject of controversy. Traditional
grammarians for centuries have argued that the singular male pronoun is the grammatically
correct form because words such as anyone or anybody are singular,
even though they refer to plural concepts. The choice of the male pronoun his
was based on the assumption that the male pronoun encompassed reference to
females.
While such an argument may be true of Latin and other languages such as Spanish
or German, there is no basis for this in English. In Spanish, all nouns are either
masculine or feminine. In the case of Latin or German, all nouns are masculine,
feminine, or neuter. The plural form, when reference is made to both sexes, is the
male plural form in all of these languages.
English, in contrast, does not classify its nouns according to gender, except in
a few instances where they clearly refer to a specific sex such as girl or father. In
addition, English plural nouns are gender neutral (we, our, ours, you, your, yours,
they, their, theirs), unless the antecedent (preceding noun or noun phrase) specifically
indicates gender.
The use of “his” after such pronouns as anyone or everybody is an artificial
construct of traditional grammarians, derived from early English grammarians who
wrote the first grammars based on “logical” Latin. Guided by the “logic” of Latin,
they concluded that since -one and -body are singular and since a male pronoun
should encompass reference to all persons, his was the “logical” or “correct”
choice.
Although grammarians have insisted that speakers use “his” for centuries, the
tendency has been to use the plural pronoun form their and to avoid any reference
to gender. In fact, in the last several decades, it has become generally unacceptable
in American English to use the singular male pronoun after such words as each,
everyone, somebody.
4 1 What is Grammar?
Following the rise of the feminist movement and the changes in the status of
women in society, somemodern grammarians, in response to the gender controversy
have begun recommending the use of he or she, while others urge using plural nouns
and pronouns in order to avoid the problem. Instead of Everyone needs his book, the
sentence can be reworded as “all students need their books.” Another strategy is the
use of “a” instead of “his” as in: Everyone needs a book.
What was the Purpose of this Discovery Activity and discussion?
Language and Change
This brief activity and discussion highlight the differences between how people
actually express themselves and how language experts say they should. Moreover,
even among so-called language experts there is not uniform agreement as to what is
“correct” or acceptable. One reason for such controversy is the nature of language:
It is a living, fluid entity that changes in response to changes in society.
Societal changes are reflected in language. For example, the change in women’s
status is reflected in changes in acceptable pronoun reference, as illustrated in Sentence
(4) of Discovery Activity 1. Societal changes can also be seen in the new words
adopted into the language. Think of the enormous number of new words related to
computers and the Internet that have entered languages around the world. Language
changes reflect the greater changes of a society.
Frequently, changes in grammatical use or even new word adoption are considered
“degeneration” or “degradation” of the language with calls to avoid sloppiness
and carelessness in language. George Orwell, author of 1984 and Animal Farm
wrote:
A man may take to drink because he feels himself to be a failure, and then fail all the
more completely because he drinks. It is rather the same thing that is happening to the
English language. It becomes ugly and inaccurate because our thoughts are foolish, but the
slovenliness of our language makes it easier for us to have foolish thoughts.
[Orwell, G. (1966/1953). Politics and the English language. In: A collection of
essays (p. 156). New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich. Also available on line at:
http://www.privateline.com/ Orwell/orwell.html]
In some countries there are even official language academies charged with maintaining
the “purity” and “integrity” of the language. In France, for instance, L’Acad´emie
franc¸aise has been the arbiter of the French language for several centuries. Upset
by the increasingly Anglicization of French (i.e. the adoption of English words
into French, particularly in the sciences and technology), the French government
passed a law in the mid-1990s essentially outlawing the adoption of foreign words
into French and requiring instead the use of newly-created or adapted French
words.
Yet even with such an academy dictating proper usage, the French language
spoken at the beginning of the 20th century is different from that spoken at
the beginning of the 21st. A language that does not change does not have any
Language and Change 5
living native speakers, as in the case of Latin or Sanskrit. Thus many argue
that changes in language are an indicator of the viability and vitality, of that
language.
While American English has no equivalent academy acting as “protector of the
language,” it does have manuals of style, language mavens, and others weighing
in on the grammaticality of a form or the acceptability of new words and usage.
However, since there is no single official arbiter of American English, there is often
disagreement among “experts,” particularly in areas that many regard as involving
the finer or “more obscure” points of grammar.
Discovery Activity 2 will help expand our discussion of grammaticality.
Discovery Activity 2: More Decisions on Grammaticality
Look at the sentences below.
a. Based on your opinion, label each sentence as G for grammatical, N for
non-grammatical, and ? for “not sure” or “don’t know”.
b. For those sentences you labeled as N, identify the element or elements that
you think are ungrammatical and explain why you think they are ungrammatical.
c. For those sentences you labeled as ?, if you can, discuss why you are
unsure.
1. Jackie says she don’t know if they can come.
2. I’m not going to do nothing about that missing part.
3. We sure don’t have any problems with the phone company.
4. Shoppers are used to standing on long lines at this store.
Discussion: Discovery Activity 2
Before you look at the discussion, think about your initial reactions to each of these
four sentences. Were any of your reactions different from your reactions to the sentences
in Discovery Activity 1? If so, how and why? If you are a non-native speaker
of English, ask a native speaker to complete this activity. Compare your responses.
If they are different, think about why this might be so.
For many native speakers of American English, Sentences (1) and (2) represent
forms of non-standard English are considered markers of low socioeconomic and/or
marginalized social status. In other words, these are stigmatized language forms
that are recognizable to the general population as “incorrect” American English, in
both spoken and written forms. This is in contrast to the examples in Discovery
6 1 What is Grammar?
Activity 1, where even highly educated speakers produce such sentences, except in
the most formal contexts.
Sentences (3) and (4), on the other hand, represent regional variations in the
United States that speakers from other parts of the country find unusual or curious.
Outside the New York City metropolitan area, most people stand in line and not on
line. Outside most of the south, most speakers do not use sure don’t. Neither Sentence
(3) nor Sentence (4), however, carries the stigmatizing effect that Sentences
(1) and (2) do.
Discovery Activity 2 illustrates some further differences in the concept of “grammar.”
On the one hand, there is something most users of a language recognize as a
“standard.” They may not be able to articulate all the rules and usages, but they can
recognize what is and is not acceptable and can generally point to the reason why.
For example, standard language users may not know the rule, “Use third person –s
in singular present tense verbs,” but they do know that “he or she” uses “doesn’t”
and not “don’t.” The difference between the sentences in Discovery Activity 1 and
Discovery Activity 2 is that those in 2 are clearly recognized by themajority of users
as “incorrect” English.
Teachers of ESL/EFL learners need to recognize that learners of English often
produce sentences such as (1) and (2), not necessarily because they are speakers
of non-standard English, but because they have not yet mastered the standard
forms. Even if students have been consistently introduced to and practiced
the standard forms, it generally takes a significant period of time to master these
forms.
Linguists and Grammar
Linguists have a very different approach to the notion of grammar. From the linguist’s
point of view, grammar is not a collection of rules, often obscure, arcane, and
often illogical, that must be taught, but rather a set of blueprints that guide speakers
in producing comprehensible and predictable language. Every language, including
its dialects or variants, is systematic and orderly. Languages and their variations
are rule-governed structures, and are therefore “grammatical.” In other words, all
languages consist of patterns, or “grammars,” that make sense of the features of a
given language that include the arbitrary symbols, sounds, and words that make up
that language.
Consider the following string of words. How many sentences can you come up
with using these words and only these words?
the, came, girl, baskets, home, with
Most native speakers, using only their intuitive knowledge of grammar, will come
up with this sentence:
The girl came home with baskets.
Language is Rule-Governed 7
Some native speakers may come up with this variation:
The girl with baskets came home.
What they do is use grammar to put this seemingly random string of words into
a comprehensible sentence. Any other combination of words would produce
sentences that would sound strange to English speakers because they would not
be grammatical; i.e. fit the blueprint of how words are combined in English to make
sentences.
While this is true for native speakers, ESL/EFL learners need to learn explicitly
which words fit together in a string according to the rules or patterns of English. For
them, their intuitive knowledge is valid for their own native language, which uses
patterns different from, and often contrary to, English.
Language is Rule-Governed
What does “rule-governed” mean?
This interpretation or definition of grammar is what is meant when linguists say languages
are rule-governed, systematic, and organized or grammatical. Children, as
part of the process of acquiring their native language, learn without formal instruction
what belongs with what in order to form coherent, intelligible, and meaningful
sentences. They learn the grammar of their language and with this grammar they can
create an unlimited number of new and original sentences. Even when the sentence
elements are new and unique, ones that native speakers have never before seen, they
can use and adapt them according to the patterns of their language.
Consider this excerpt from Jabberwocky by Lewis Carroll:
Beware the Jabberwock, my son!
The jaws that bite, the claws that catch!
Beware the Jubjub bird, and shun
The frumious Bandersnatch!
The poem is famous for consisting of nonsense words mixed in with normal English
words. What makes the poem so vivid and effective in many respects is the ability
of the author to evoke images based on the grammatical knowledge of the native or
highly proficient non-native speaker. Jabberwock for instance, is preceded by the, a
word, called a definite article, that in English precedes a noun. Both that clue and
the fact that Jabberwock is capitalized, tell us that this nonsense word is a noun,
specifically a proper noun or a name noun similar to Chicago or Italy.
Now let’s look at the word Jubjub. Like Jabberwock, this word is capitalized and
preceded by the. However, we know intuitively that Jubjub does not have the same
sentence function as Jabberwock.Why is this so?
After Jubjub we see the word bird. This is a word that we call a noun, specifically
a noun that names a thing; in this case a thing that flies, has wings, and a
beak. From the position of the word Jubjub before this noun bird, we know that
8 1 What is Grammar?
Jubjub is describing something about bird. Since Jubjub is written with a capital J ,
we can guess that it is telling us specifically what kind of bird is being referred
to. In other words, Jubjub is functioning as an adjective before the noun bird.
Because of its sentence position, Jubjub has a function similar to Siberian as in
Siberian tiger.
Similarly, we can guess that frumious is another descriptive word, describing
something about the proper noun Bandersnatch. The sentence position of
frumious before Bandersnatch is one clue. A different type of clue telling us something
about frumious is the ending –ous. This is an ending that is found in other
words that describe nouns, such as famous, gorgeous, voluptuous, egregious, and
pretentious.
Native and highly proficient non-native speakers of English can understand and
appreciate this poem without ever before having seen such words as Jabberwocky or
frumious, and without necessarily knowing what the terms noun or adjective mean
because they know the grammar of English. The rules they are using to understand
this poem are below their level of awareness. Few speakers, whether native or highly
proficient non-native speakers, are conscious of which “grammar” rules they are
applying or using to understand this poem.
Since languages differ in the types and applications of rules, however, ESL/EFL
learners need to learn the new patterns of the language they are studying. They
need to begin by becoming aware that there are differences in how languages are
patterned, and then work toward the goal of being able to subconsciously produce
the new language without explicit reference to rules.
In Discovery Activity 3 you will have the chance to see how much you know
about English grammar.
Discovery Activity 3: Follow-Up: Jabberwocky Excerpts
Here aremore excerpts from Lewis Carroll’s Jabberwocky. Using the previous
analysis as a starting point:
1. What conclusions can you draw about the italicized words?
2. Explain why you reached the conclusions you did.
And, as in uffish thought he stood,
The Jabberwock, with eyes of flame,
Came whiffling through the tulgey wood,
And burbled as it came!
One two! One two! And through and through
The vorpal blade went snicker-snack!
[Carroll, L. (1871). Through the looking glass and what alice found
there. Available on line at: http://www.jabberwocky.com/carroll/jabber/
jabberwocky.html]
Language is Rule-Governed 9
Discussion: Discovery Activity 3
You may not have been able to explain exactly why you came to the conclusions
you did regarding the different highlighted words in this activity; nevertheless, you
were probably able to give some description as to the functions of the words. This
ability is part of your knowledge of the underlying patterns, or grammar, of English.
Based on sentence position and endings, you probably concluded that uffish, tulgey,
and vorpal are descriptive words (adjectives) describing the nouns following
them. –ish, -y, and –al are common adjective endings. In Chapter 2 we will examine
word endings in more detail.
-ish -y -al
waspish smelly logical
smallish rainy biographical
standoffish crazy nautical
greenish jumpy educational
Although snicker-snack is not recognizable as an adverb based on word ending,
its sentence position identifies it as such. It comes after the verb went and is describing
something about the verb. We can also say that the alliteration of the sounds of
the word easily bring to mind a sound such as a sword might make.
Language as a Set of Rules versus Language as Rule-Governed
Discovery Activity 3 demonstrates that there are two very different conceptions of
grammar. There is one school of thought that views grammar as a collection of rules
that must be learned in order to use language “correctly.” Users of language who do
not adhere to the rules are using an “inferior” or “sloppy” form of the language.
The correct rules must often be learned and practiced, and may at times be contrary
to what even educated native speakers use in formal language contexts. This is the
prescriptive school of grammar.
There is another school that sees grammar as a blueprint of language. As a
blueprint of language, grammar guides speakers in how to string together symbols,
sounds, and words to make coherent, meaningful sentences. This type of grammar
knowledge is intuitive and reflects the innate ability of speakers to learn and use
their native language. Children, for instance, do not memorize rules as they learn to
speak; what they actually learn are the rules or patterns governing their language.
Grammar is what allows language users to create and understand an unlimited number
of new and original sentences. Furthermore, no language has only one grammar;
each language has subsets of grammar, which are generally referred to as dialects.
These subsets are often considered substandard forms, yet they are also just as rulegoverned
as the standard variety. This is the descriptive school of thought. A more
in-depth look at the two different schools of thought follows.
10 1 What is Grammar?
Prescriptive versus Descriptive Grammar
What are some examples of the differences between prescriptive and descriptive
grammar?
Prescriptive Grammar
A key distinction between how linguists view grammar and how others do is the
distinction between prescriptive and descriptive grammar. Prescriptive grammar is
the grammar taught in school, discussed in newspaper and magazine columns on
language, or mandated by language academies such as those found in Spain or
France.
Prescriptive grammar attempts to tell people how they should say something,
what words they should use, when they need to make a specific choice, and why they
should do so—even if the rule itself goes against speakers’ natural inclinations. At
times, prescriptive grammar rules are overextended to the point that speakers hypercorrect,
that is, they apply the grammatical rules in situations where they should
not.
Take, for instance, the use of the pronouns I and me. For many years English
teachers in the United States railed against the incorrect use of me, the object pronoun,
in subject position as in:
(1) Me and John are going to the store.
or
John and me are going to the store
(2) Me and Sue had lunch.
or
Sue and me had lunch.
There is a prescriptive grammar rule in English specifying that pronouns in subject
positionmust be subject pronouns (I, you, we, he, she, it, they). According to this
rule, speakers’ use of me in (1) and (2) is incorrect because me is actually the first
person object pronoun. In addition, the subject pronoun I should follow any other
noun subject or subject pronoun. Thus, from a prescriptive point of view, Sentences
(1) and (2) must be:
(1a) John and I are going to the store.
(2a) Sue and I had lunch.
In the last several decades, many native speakers, attempting to avoid the incorrect
use of me tend to hypercorrect the use of me by substituting I , even in cases where
me is called for because it is in object position. Consider the following samples of
actual speech:
Prescriptive versus Descriptive Grammar 11
(3) They couldn’t have raised all the necessary funding without input from
John and I, even coming in at the last minute as we did.
John and I are objects of the preposition from. The prescriptive grammar rule
requires the use of me and not I .
(4) He really shouldn’t have been put into that class, but between you and I,
the principal didn’t have any other choice.
You and I are the objects of the preposition between and again, as in Sentence (3),
and me rather than I must be used.
(5) The driver gave the boys and I good directions on how to find the back
entrance to the restaurant.
The boys and I are the objects of the verb give. As in Sentences (3) and (4), me is
the correct choice and not I .
What we see in Sentences (1) through (5) is a difference in prescriptive grammar
rules and descriptive grammar rules. Prescriptive rules (sometimes referred to as
usage rules) are those rules that explain what users of a language are supposed to
do. These are often the rules that:
are explicitly taught and learned in formal school settings.
often require conscious effort to remember and apply.
are often learned incompletely or insufficiently, leading to hypercorrection as in
Examples (3), (4), and (5).
Change is vital to a living language. As the substitution of I for me in the
object position becomes increasingly widespread, it may well become an
accepted language form in the future, except perhaps for the most formal of
contexts.
Who versus whom
How is the difference between who and whom related to prescriptive grammar
versus descriptive grammar?
An example of a change that has become more widespread and accepted is the
loss of the distinction between who and whom. Most native speakers of English do
not make this distinction consistently. A prescriptive grammar rule maintains that
whom is the object form of who as in:
(6) The author, whom I met last year, signed several copies of the text.
(7) For Whom the Bell Tolls was written in 1940 by Earnest Hemingway.
In Sentence (6), whom is the object of the verb met. In Sentence (7), it is the object
of the preposition for.
For many, if not most speakers of American English, the rules governing the
use of whom seem bothersome, and require attention and effort as the form is
12 1 What is Grammar?
generally not used in informal speech and is essentially reserved for formal edited
writing. In spoken and written English, native speakers commonly produce such
sentences as:
(8) Who did you see last night at the movies?
(9) The person who you really need to talk to is not here right now.
From the perspective of prescriptive grammar, the correct form in Sentences (8) and
(9) is whom, not who. In both sentences whom is functioning as an object and not as
a subject. In Sentence (8), who is the object of the verb see and in Sentence (9), who
is the object of you really need to talk to.
Thus, from a prescriptive perspective, these sentences should be:
(8a) Whom did you see last night at the movies?
(9a) The person to whom you really need to talk is not here right now.
The distinction between who and whom is a prescriptive grammar rule requiring
conscious attention and effort which is often incompletely applied. Thus,
language users, in an effort to use “correct” grammar produce sentences such as:
(10) (waitress to customer): Whom ordered the steak rare?
(11) The references of all applicants whom will be walking clients’ dogs will
be checked.
In both sentences, the correct form is who, not whom. In Sentence (10), Who it is
the subject of the verb ordered. In Sentence (11), it is the subject of will be walking.
Learners of English who have begun their study of the language in their home
countries are often more aware of the difference in use between who and whom
because their instruction has been more prescriptive. Also, since their exposure is
frequently limited to classroom instruction, they may have had less exposure to more
informal forms of English.
How much emphasis needs to be placed on the distinction between who and whom
in the ESL/EFL classroom?
There are several factors to consider in answering this question. For example, are the
students preparing to take certain exams that test knowledge of prescriptive rules?
If the answer is yes, then the ESL/EFL teachers must place more emphasis on this
distinction than if the answer is no.
Additionally, how much does not observing this distinction between who and
whom interfere with understanding? Since native speakers routinely do not observe
this distinction, the answer is very little. As we will see in later chapters, there
are more serious learning issues that do interfere with comprehension on which
ESL/EFL teachers need to focus.
Prescriptive versus Descriptive Grammar 13
Descriptive Grammar
Descriptive grammar rules, in contrast to prescriptive rules, describe how adult
native speakers actually use their language. From this perspective, grammar is what
organizes language into meaningful, systematic patterns. These rules are inherent
to each language and are generally not conscious rules. However, they are readily
observable for those interested in looking. Descriptive grammar, unlike prescriptive
grammar, does not say, “this is right” or “this is wrong.”
Some people think that descriptive grammarmeans saying that everything is right
and nothing is wrong. What we must consider is the purpose for which a speaker is
using language. If a person is at a white-collar job interview or sending in a college
application, using stigmatized language forms is inappropriate. On the other hand,
if the person is among a group of peers, using a different variety of language is
part of in-group acceptance and identity. This is not to say that there should be
no grammar rulebooks, manuals of style, or standards of usage; on the contrary,
there is a need for standards, especially in formal language contexts and when we
are teaching English to non-native speakers. What ESL/EFL teachers must do is
develop an awareness, especially as learners become more proficient, that there are
variations of prescriptive grammar rules, some of which are more acceptable in
certain contexts than others.
Why do I as an ESL/EFL teacher need to know the difference between prescriptive
and descriptive grammar?
ESL/EFL teachers need to understand what learners need to know in order to
learn English. The needs of these learners are very different from those of native
speakers. Native speakers and textbooks geared to them focus on prescriptive
grammar. ESL/EFL learners, on the other hand, need to learn structures and
forms that native speakers know as part of their innate knowledge of English.
The vast majority of what ESL/EFL learners need to learn is descriptive grammar.
ESL/EFL teachers must also consider why students are learning the language,
which errors are more serious than others, and on which aspects of grammar to
focus. In this text we will be focusing on the grammatical rules and grammatical
structures that ESL/EFL learners need to learn in order to communicate in
English.
Why do I need to know grammar?
For teachers of ESL/EFL learners, a knowledge of how English works is essential.
Teachers need to be able to talk about how sentences are constructed,
about the types of words and word groups that make up sentences, and about
the functions of these words and word groups within sentences and in larger
contexts.
With this knowledge, teachers can help their students understand the language
and know what their students need to learn in order to acquire it. Without knowing
the essential components, as well as the complexities of the language in question, it
14 1 What is Grammar?
is difficult to understand what learners actually need to know in order to learn the
new language.
What do you mean by the “complexities of language?”
The next two Discovery Activities introduce a few of the structures and forms that
we will discuss in greater detail throughout the book. These are examples of the
“complexities” that native speakers knowintuitively, yet that ESL/EFL learners need
to learn explicitly. After you have finished Discovery Activity 4, check your answers
with those found at the end of the chapter in the section labeled “Answer Key.”
Discovery Activity 4: Verbs
Look at the following sentences.
a. Find the verbs and underline them.
b. How would you explain these verbs in these sentences to a learner of
English?
1. Many people don’t like meat.
2. Do you drive to New York?
3. She’s lived in the country since last year.
4. I’m about to buy a new car.
5. The flight is leaving in the next 20 minutes.
After you have checked your answers to Discovery Activity 4, try Discovery
Activity 5. Think about how you would explain the italicized words to an ESL/EFL
student. Discuss your answers with your classmates; then compare your responses
with those found in the Answer Key. This will then conclude our introduction to
grammar.
Discovery Activity 5: Other Parts of Speech
Look at the following sentences.
How would you explain the italicized words in these sentences to a learner of
English?
1. The child painted a big, beautiful, wooden box. but not:
The child painted a wooden beautiful big box.
2. The pencil I have doesn’t have an eraser.
3. That is a stone fence.
4. Mary drove fast but stopped quickly at the red light.
Summary 15
Summary
Linguists versus Grammarians
A linguist’s definition of grammar is A grammarian’s definition of grammar is
a system or the “blueprints” for creating
language
the written rules governing when to use which
forms or structures
the shared rules (patterns) in native
speakers’ minds that allow them to generate
unique utterances; native speakers’
shared mental rules
something you follow in order to use the language
correctly there are different grammars shared by
different groups of speakers; because all
languages and variations are systematic in
their generation of utterances; all grammars
are viewed as valid that one particular variety of grammar is considered
the “standard” descriptive prescriptive
A linguist’s purpose in examining grammar
is to
A grammarian’s purpose in examining grammar
is tounderstand the mental or subconscious
rules shared by different groups of native
speakers. These rules are learned as part
of the process of growing up as a native
speaker of a given language. describe the system and blueprints. understand the shared elements (rules) that
make variations still belong to one language
versus another different language;
i.e. what makes English not German or
Chinese.learn which variations are used by which
groups and in which situations.understand which variations are lessacceptable
or stigmatized in which situations
and why. learn which changes are taking place and
whyfocus on discrete items and specific rules of
use (“usage rules”). determine what word, phrase or construction
is or is not correct according to a particular
usage or style book, or person (usually selfappointed
“language mavens” or “language
gurus”).determine grammar “rules” which must often
be taught. These rules often exist on a continuum
of acceptability because language
changes and some usage or style books, or
language gurus are more reluctant to accept
change than others.
debate what must be used when and why
based on what a particular usage or style book,
or person determines is correct.
Standard American English
is that which most style and usage books and speakers recognize as “correct.” There is no
language academy or formal government institution decreeing or legislating “correctness” for
American English.
exists on a continuum of “correctness.” Not all style and usage books, and not all “language
gurus” agree on what is “correct” because language changes. Some grammarians are slower to
accept change than others.
16 1 What is Grammar?
(continued)
Standard American English
Only languages that no longer have native speakers do not change. These are referred to as
“dead” languages. Examples of this are Latin and Sanskrit.
The English that is taught to non-native speakers is recognized as Standard English because the
grammar, for the most part, reflects formally educated native speakers’ shared rules.
Introduction
When I think of grammar, I think of word usage – which, of course, everyone
butchers.
I despise grammar. I find the rules trite and boring. Grammar (and its enforcers)
need to loosen up and enjoy life more!
Grammar makes my stomach churn.
These comments will strike a chord with many users of this textbook. The term
grammar does not bring pleasant memories to the minds of many people. The term
grammar frequently brings to mind tedious lessons with endless drills, repetition,
and other generally mindless practice, focused on mostly obscure rules of how people
are supposed to write and speak. For native speakers of any given language,
grammar often represents to them the great “mystery” of language, known only to
language specialists or those of older generations, the ones who really know what is
“right”. Many feel that “grammar” is something that they were never taught and that
feel they therefore “don’t know.” Grammar is also often linked to both explicit and
implicit criticisms of people’s use or “misuse” of language, which may have created
a sense of resentment or frustration with the notion of grammar.
Grammar as a Set of Rules
The idea that grammar is a set of rules, often seen as arbitrary or unrealistic, is only
one narrow view of grammar. Such a view is based on the belief that:
grammar must be explicitly taught;
grammar is absolute and fixed, a target or goal that speakers need attain in order
to be “good” speakers or writers of the language;
grammar is inherently difficult and confusing, its mysteries only apparent to
teachers, language mavens, or linguists.
A. DeCapua, Grammar for Teachers, 1
C
Springer 2008
2 1 What is Grammar?
Discovery Activity 1: Making Decisions on Grammaticality
Look at the sentences below.
a. In your opinion, label each sentence as G for grammatical, N for ungrammatical,
and ? for “not sure” or “don’t know”.
b. For those sentences you labeled as N, identify the element or elements that
you think are ungrammatical and explain why you think they are ungrammatical.
c. For those sentences you labeled as ?, if you can, discuss why you are
unsure.
1. She had less problemswith themove to a new school than she thought
she would.
2. She lays in bed all day whenever she gets a migraine headache.
3. My sister Alice, who is older than me, still lives at home.
4. Everyone needs to buy their books before the first day of class.
Discussion: Discovery Activity 1
In all of these sentences there is a difference between casual English and formal
English. In formal English, particularly when written, there are rules that speakers
are taught that must be followed in order for sentences to be considered “correct.”
In the first sentence, few should be used only with nouns we can count, such as
apples, pens, or days while less should be used with nouns we can’t count, such
as math, water, or beauty. According to this rule, the sentence should be She had
fewer problems with the move to the new school than she thought she would (see
Chapter 3).
In the next sentence, there is a formal grammar rule distinguishing between lie
and lay. Lie is a verb that is not followed by an object, while lay is a verb that is
followed by an object. Compare these two sentences:
Cats lie on beds lie = resting or sleeping
Cats lay mice on beds. lay = put
Another way to differentiate these two similar verbs is to describe lay as an action
verb and lie as a non-action verb. According to the rule that tells us that lie
doesn’t take an object but lay does, Sentence (2) needs to be rewritten in formal
English as:
She lies in bed all day long whenever she has a migraine headache.
Grammar as a Set of Rules 3
Adding to the confusion between lie and lay is the fact that the past tense form of
lie is lay. (The past tense of lie is lay). As the distinction is becoming less and less
common, even “serious” publications interchange the two forms, which illustrates
how language, and what is considered acceptable, gradually changes:
Goldmann and Wermusch detected the dried-up river bed of this branch, which had discharged
into the sea west of the present-day city of Barth. The two concluded that large
parts of Vineta must lay buried in the silt of the lagoon north of Barth.
[Bryasac, S. (2003 July/August). Atlantis of the Baltic. Archeology, 64.]
In Sentence (3) there is a grammar rule that dictates I needs to be used here, not me
because than compares two nouns in subject position as in:
My sister Alice, who is older than I, still lives at home.
Nevertheless, for many users of English, I after than sounds stilted or affected in
spoken English and in informal written contexts, such as e-mail or personal correspondence.
In Sentence (4) Everyone needs to buy their books before the first day of class,
the discussion of which pronoun to use is a subject of controversy. Traditional
grammarians for centuries have argued that the singular male pronoun is the grammatically
correct form because words such as anyone or anybody are singular,
even though they refer to plural concepts. The choice of the male pronoun his
was based on the assumption that the male pronoun encompassed reference to
females.
While such an argument may be true of Latin and other languages such as Spanish
or German, there is no basis for this in English. In Spanish, all nouns are either
masculine or feminine. In the case of Latin or German, all nouns are masculine,
feminine, or neuter. The plural form, when reference is made to both sexes, is the
male plural form in all of these languages.
English, in contrast, does not classify its nouns according to gender, except in
a few instances where they clearly refer to a specific sex such as girl or father. In
addition, English plural nouns are gender neutral (we, our, ours, you, your, yours,
they, their, theirs), unless the antecedent (preceding noun or noun phrase) specifically
indicates gender.
The use of “his” after such pronouns as anyone or everybody is an artificial
construct of traditional grammarians, derived from early English grammarians who
wrote the first grammars based on “logical” Latin. Guided by the “logic” of Latin,
they concluded that since -one and -body are singular and since a male pronoun
should encompass reference to all persons, his was the “logical” or “correct”
choice.
Although grammarians have insisted that speakers use “his” for centuries, the
tendency has been to use the plural pronoun form their and to avoid any reference
to gender. In fact, in the last several decades, it has become generally unacceptable
in American English to use the singular male pronoun after such words as each,
everyone, somebody.
4 1 What is Grammar?
Following the rise of the feminist movement and the changes in the status of
women in society, somemodern grammarians, in response to the gender controversy
have begun recommending the use of he or she, while others urge using plural nouns
and pronouns in order to avoid the problem. Instead of Everyone needs his book, the
sentence can be reworded as “all students need their books.” Another strategy is the
use of “a” instead of “his” as in: Everyone needs a book.
What was the Purpose of this Discovery Activity and discussion?
Language and Change
This brief activity and discussion highlight the differences between how people
actually express themselves and how language experts say they should. Moreover,
even among so-called language experts there is not uniform agreement as to what is
“correct” or acceptable. One reason for such controversy is the nature of language:
It is a living, fluid entity that changes in response to changes in society.
Societal changes are reflected in language. For example, the change in women’s
status is reflected in changes in acceptable pronoun reference, as illustrated in Sentence
(4) of Discovery Activity 1. Societal changes can also be seen in the new words
adopted into the language. Think of the enormous number of new words related to
computers and the Internet that have entered languages around the world. Language
changes reflect the greater changes of a society.
Frequently, changes in grammatical use or even new word adoption are considered
“degeneration” or “degradation” of the language with calls to avoid sloppiness
and carelessness in language. George Orwell, author of 1984 and Animal Farm
wrote:
A man may take to drink because he feels himself to be a failure, and then fail all the
more completely because he drinks. It is rather the same thing that is happening to the
English language. It becomes ugly and inaccurate because our thoughts are foolish, but the
slovenliness of our language makes it easier for us to have foolish thoughts.
[Orwell, G. (1966/1953). Politics and the English language. In: A collection of
essays (p. 156). New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich. Also available on line at:
http://www.privateline.com/ Orwell/orwell.html]
In some countries there are even official language academies charged with maintaining
the “purity” and “integrity” of the language. In France, for instance, L’Acad´emie
franc¸aise has been the arbiter of the French language for several centuries. Upset
by the increasingly Anglicization of French (i.e. the adoption of English words
into French, particularly in the sciences and technology), the French government
passed a law in the mid-1990s essentially outlawing the adoption of foreign words
into French and requiring instead the use of newly-created or adapted French
words.
Yet even with such an academy dictating proper usage, the French language
spoken at the beginning of the 20th century is different from that spoken at
the beginning of the 21st. A language that does not change does not have any
Language and Change 5
living native speakers, as in the case of Latin or Sanskrit. Thus many argue
that changes in language are an indicator of the viability and vitality, of that
language.
While American English has no equivalent academy acting as “protector of the
language,” it does have manuals of style, language mavens, and others weighing
in on the grammaticality of a form or the acceptability of new words and usage.
However, since there is no single official arbiter of American English, there is often
disagreement among “experts,” particularly in areas that many regard as involving
the finer or “more obscure” points of grammar.
Discovery Activity 2 will help expand our discussion of grammaticality.
Discovery Activity 2: More Decisions on Grammaticality
Look at the sentences below.
a. Based on your opinion, label each sentence as G for grammatical, N for
non-grammatical, and ? for “not sure” or “don’t know”.
b. For those sentences you labeled as N, identify the element or elements that
you think are ungrammatical and explain why you think they are ungrammatical.
c. For those sentences you labeled as ?, if you can, discuss why you are
unsure.
1. Jackie says she don’t know if they can come.
2. I’m not going to do nothing about that missing part.
3. We sure don’t have any problems with the phone company.
4. Shoppers are used to standing on long lines at this store.
Discussion: Discovery Activity 2
Before you look at the discussion, think about your initial reactions to each of these
four sentences. Were any of your reactions different from your reactions to the sentences
in Discovery Activity 1? If so, how and why? If you are a non-native speaker
of English, ask a native speaker to complete this activity. Compare your responses.
If they are different, think about why this might be so.
For many native speakers of American English, Sentences (1) and (2) represent
forms of non-standard English are considered markers of low socioeconomic and/or
marginalized social status. In other words, these are stigmatized language forms
that are recognizable to the general population as “incorrect” American English, in
both spoken and written forms. This is in contrast to the examples in Discovery
6 1 What is Grammar?
Activity 1, where even highly educated speakers produce such sentences, except in
the most formal contexts.
Sentences (3) and (4), on the other hand, represent regional variations in the
United States that speakers from other parts of the country find unusual or curious.
Outside the New York City metropolitan area, most people stand in line and not on
line. Outside most of the south, most speakers do not use sure don’t. Neither Sentence
(3) nor Sentence (4), however, carries the stigmatizing effect that Sentences
(1) and (2) do.
Discovery Activity 2 illustrates some further differences in the concept of “grammar.”
On the one hand, there is something most users of a language recognize as a
“standard.” They may not be able to articulate all the rules and usages, but they can
recognize what is and is not acceptable and can generally point to the reason why.
For example, standard language users may not know the rule, “Use third person –s
in singular present tense verbs,” but they do know that “he or she” uses “doesn’t”
and not “don’t.” The difference between the sentences in Discovery Activity 1 and
Discovery Activity 2 is that those in 2 are clearly recognized by themajority of users
as “incorrect” English.
Teachers of ESL/EFL learners need to recognize that learners of English often
produce sentences such as (1) and (2), not necessarily because they are speakers
of non-standard English, but because they have not yet mastered the standard
forms. Even if students have been consistently introduced to and practiced
the standard forms, it generally takes a significant period of time to master these
forms.
Linguists and Grammar
Linguists have a very different approach to the notion of grammar. From the linguist’s
point of view, grammar is not a collection of rules, often obscure, arcane, and
often illogical, that must be taught, but rather a set of blueprints that guide speakers
in producing comprehensible and predictable language. Every language, including
its dialects or variants, is systematic and orderly. Languages and their variations
are rule-governed structures, and are therefore “grammatical.” In other words, all
languages consist of patterns, or “grammars,” that make sense of the features of a
given language that include the arbitrary symbols, sounds, and words that make up
that language.
Consider the following string of words. How many sentences can you come up
with using these words and only these words?
the, came, girl, baskets, home, with
Most native speakers, using only their intuitive knowledge of grammar, will come
up with this sentence:
The girl came home with baskets.
Language is Rule-Governed 7
Some native speakers may come up with this variation:
The girl with baskets came home.
What they do is use grammar to put this seemingly random string of words into
a comprehensible sentence. Any other combination of words would produce
sentences that would sound strange to English speakers because they would not
be grammatical; i.e. fit the blueprint of how words are combined in English to make
sentences.
While this is true for native speakers, ESL/EFL learners need to learn explicitly
which words fit together in a string according to the rules or patterns of English. For
them, their intuitive knowledge is valid for their own native language, which uses
patterns different from, and often contrary to, English.
Language is Rule-Governed
What does “rule-governed” mean?
This interpretation or definition of grammar is what is meant when linguists say languages
are rule-governed, systematic, and organized or grammatical. Children, as
part of the process of acquiring their native language, learn without formal instruction
what belongs with what in order to form coherent, intelligible, and meaningful
sentences. They learn the grammar of their language and with this grammar they can
create an unlimited number of new and original sentences. Even when the sentence
elements are new and unique, ones that native speakers have never before seen, they
can use and adapt them according to the patterns of their language.
Consider this excerpt from Jabberwocky by Lewis Carroll:
Beware the Jabberwock, my son!
The jaws that bite, the claws that catch!
Beware the Jubjub bird, and shun
The frumious Bandersnatch!
The poem is famous for consisting of nonsense words mixed in with normal English
words. What makes the poem so vivid and effective in many respects is the ability
of the author to evoke images based on the grammatical knowledge of the native or
highly proficient non-native speaker. Jabberwock for instance, is preceded by the, a
word, called a definite article, that in English precedes a noun. Both that clue and
the fact that Jabberwock is capitalized, tell us that this nonsense word is a noun,
specifically a proper noun or a name noun similar to Chicago or Italy.
Now let’s look at the word Jubjub. Like Jabberwock, this word is capitalized and
preceded by the. However, we know intuitively that Jubjub does not have the same
sentence function as Jabberwock.Why is this so?
After Jubjub we see the word bird. This is a word that we call a noun, specifically
a noun that names a thing; in this case a thing that flies, has wings, and a
beak. From the position of the word Jubjub before this noun bird, we know that
8 1 What is Grammar?
Jubjub is describing something about bird. Since Jubjub is written with a capital J ,
we can guess that it is telling us specifically what kind of bird is being referred
to. In other words, Jubjub is functioning as an adjective before the noun bird.
Because of its sentence position, Jubjub has a function similar to Siberian as in
Siberian tiger.
Similarly, we can guess that frumious is another descriptive word, describing
something about the proper noun Bandersnatch. The sentence position of
frumious before Bandersnatch is one clue. A different type of clue telling us something
about frumious is the ending –ous. This is an ending that is found in other
words that describe nouns, such as famous, gorgeous, voluptuous, egregious, and
pretentious.
Native and highly proficient non-native speakers of English can understand and
appreciate this poem without ever before having seen such words as Jabberwocky or
frumious, and without necessarily knowing what the terms noun or adjective mean
because they know the grammar of English. The rules they are using to understand
this poem are below their level of awareness. Few speakers, whether native or highly
proficient non-native speakers, are conscious of which “grammar” rules they are
applying or using to understand this poem.
Since languages differ in the types and applications of rules, however, ESL/EFL
learners need to learn the new patterns of the language they are studying. They
need to begin by becoming aware that there are differences in how languages are
patterned, and then work toward the goal of being able to subconsciously produce
the new language without explicit reference to rules.
In Discovery Activity 3 you will have the chance to see how much you know
about English grammar.
Discovery Activity 3: Follow-Up: Jabberwocky Excerpts
Here aremore excerpts from Lewis Carroll’s Jabberwocky. Using the previous
analysis as a starting point:
1. What conclusions can you draw about the italicized words?
2. Explain why you reached the conclusions you did.
And, as in uffish thought he stood,
The Jabberwock, with eyes of flame,
Came whiffling through the tulgey wood,
And burbled as it came!
One two! One two! And through and through
The vorpal blade went snicker-snack!
[Carroll, L. (1871). Through the looking glass and what alice found
there. Available on line at: http://www.jabberwocky.com/carroll/jabber/
jabberwocky.html]
Language is Rule-Governed 9
Discussion: Discovery Activity 3
You may not have been able to explain exactly why you came to the conclusions
you did regarding the different highlighted words in this activity; nevertheless, you
were probably able to give some description as to the functions of the words. This
ability is part of your knowledge of the underlying patterns, or grammar, of English.
Based on sentence position and endings, you probably concluded that uffish, tulgey,
and vorpal are descriptive words (adjectives) describing the nouns following
them. –ish, -y, and –al are common adjective endings. In Chapter 2 we will examine
word endings in more detail.
-ish -y -al
waspish smelly logical
smallish rainy biographical
standoffish crazy nautical
greenish jumpy educational
Although snicker-snack is not recognizable as an adverb based on word ending,
its sentence position identifies it as such. It comes after the verb went and is describing
something about the verb. We can also say that the alliteration of the sounds of
the word easily bring to mind a sound such as a sword might make.
Language as a Set of Rules versus Language as Rule-Governed
Discovery Activity 3 demonstrates that there are two very different conceptions of
grammar. There is one school of thought that views grammar as a collection of rules
that must be learned in order to use language “correctly.” Users of language who do
not adhere to the rules are using an “inferior” or “sloppy” form of the language.
The correct rules must often be learned and practiced, and may at times be contrary
to what even educated native speakers use in formal language contexts. This is the
prescriptive school of grammar.
There is another school that sees grammar as a blueprint of language. As a
blueprint of language, grammar guides speakers in how to string together symbols,
sounds, and words to make coherent, meaningful sentences. This type of grammar
knowledge is intuitive and reflects the innate ability of speakers to learn and use
their native language. Children, for instance, do not memorize rules as they learn to
speak; what they actually learn are the rules or patterns governing their language.
Grammar is what allows language users to create and understand an unlimited number
of new and original sentences. Furthermore, no language has only one grammar;
each language has subsets of grammar, which are generally referred to as dialects.
These subsets are often considered substandard forms, yet they are also just as rulegoverned
as the standard variety. This is the descriptive school of thought. A more
in-depth look at the two different schools of thought follows.
10 1 What is Grammar?
Prescriptive versus Descriptive Grammar
What are some examples of the differences between prescriptive and descriptive
grammar?
Prescriptive Grammar
A key distinction between how linguists view grammar and how others do is the
distinction between prescriptive and descriptive grammar. Prescriptive grammar is
the grammar taught in school, discussed in newspaper and magazine columns on
language, or mandated by language academies such as those found in Spain or
France.
Prescriptive grammar attempts to tell people how they should say something,
what words they should use, when they need to make a specific choice, and why they
should do so—even if the rule itself goes against speakers’ natural inclinations. At
times, prescriptive grammar rules are overextended to the point that speakers hypercorrect,
that is, they apply the grammatical rules in situations where they should
not.
Take, for instance, the use of the pronouns I and me. For many years English
teachers in the United States railed against the incorrect use of me, the object pronoun,
in subject position as in:
(1) Me and John are going to the store.
or
John and me are going to the store
(2) Me and Sue had lunch.
or
Sue and me had lunch.
There is a prescriptive grammar rule in English specifying that pronouns in subject
positionmust be subject pronouns (I, you, we, he, she, it, they). According to this
rule, speakers’ use of me in (1) and (2) is incorrect because me is actually the first
person object pronoun. In addition, the subject pronoun I should follow any other
noun subject or subject pronoun. Thus, from a prescriptive point of view, Sentences
(1) and (2) must be:
(1a) John and I are going to the store.
(2a) Sue and I had lunch.
In the last several decades, many native speakers, attempting to avoid the incorrect
use of me tend to hypercorrect the use of me by substituting I , even in cases where
me is called for because it is in object position. Consider the following samples of
actual speech:
Prescriptive versus Descriptive Grammar 11
(3) They couldn’t have raised all the necessary funding without input from
John and I, even coming in at the last minute as we did.
John and I are objects of the preposition from. The prescriptive grammar rule
requires the use of me and not I .
(4) He really shouldn’t have been put into that class, but between you and I,
the principal didn’t have any other choice.
You and I are the objects of the preposition between and again, as in Sentence (3),
and me rather than I must be used.
(5) The driver gave the boys and I good directions on how to find the back
entrance to the restaurant.
The boys and I are the objects of the verb give. As in Sentences (3) and (4), me is
the correct choice and not I .
What we see in Sentences (1) through (5) is a difference in prescriptive grammar
rules and descriptive grammar rules. Prescriptive rules (sometimes referred to as
usage rules) are those rules that explain what users of a language are supposed to
do. These are often the rules that:
are explicitly taught and learned in formal school settings.
often require conscious effort to remember and apply.
are often learned incompletely or insufficiently, leading to hypercorrection as in
Examples (3), (4), and (5).
Change is vital to a living language. As the substitution of I for me in the
object position becomes increasingly widespread, it may well become an
accepted language form in the future, except perhaps for the most formal of
contexts.
Who versus whom
How is the difference between who and whom related to prescriptive grammar
versus descriptive grammar?
An example of a change that has become more widespread and accepted is the
loss of the distinction between who and whom. Most native speakers of English do
not make this distinction consistently. A prescriptive grammar rule maintains that
whom is the object form of who as in:
(6) The author, whom I met last year, signed several copies of the text.
(7) For Whom the Bell Tolls was written in 1940 by Earnest Hemingway.
In Sentence (6), whom is the object of the verb met. In Sentence (7), it is the object
of the preposition for.
For many, if not most speakers of American English, the rules governing the
use of whom seem bothersome, and require attention and effort as the form is
12 1 What is Grammar?
generally not used in informal speech and is essentially reserved for formal edited
writing. In spoken and written English, native speakers commonly produce such
sentences as:
(8) Who did you see last night at the movies?
(9) The person who you really need to talk to is not here right now.
From the perspective of prescriptive grammar, the correct form in Sentences (8) and
(9) is whom, not who. In both sentences whom is functioning as an object and not as
a subject. In Sentence (8), who is the object of the verb see and in Sentence (9), who
is the object of you really need to talk to.
Thus, from a prescriptive perspective, these sentences should be:
(8a) Whom did you see last night at the movies?
(9a) The person to whom you really need to talk is not here right now.
The distinction between who and whom is a prescriptive grammar rule requiring
conscious attention and effort which is often incompletely applied. Thus,
language users, in an effort to use “correct” grammar produce sentences such as:
(10) (waitress to customer): Whom ordered the steak rare?
(11) The references of all applicants whom will be walking clients’ dogs will
be checked.
In both sentences, the correct form is who, not whom. In Sentence (10), Who it is
the subject of the verb ordered. In Sentence (11), it is the subject of will be walking.
Learners of English who have begun their study of the language in their home
countries are often more aware of the difference in use between who and whom
because their instruction has been more prescriptive. Also, since their exposure is
frequently limited to classroom instruction, they may have had less exposure to more
informal forms of English.
How much emphasis needs to be placed on the distinction between who and whom
in the ESL/EFL classroom?
There are several factors to consider in answering this question. For example, are the
students preparing to take certain exams that test knowledge of prescriptive rules?
If the answer is yes, then the ESL/EFL teachers must place more emphasis on this
distinction than if the answer is no.
Additionally, how much does not observing this distinction between who and
whom interfere with understanding? Since native speakers routinely do not observe
this distinction, the answer is very little. As we will see in later chapters, there
are more serious learning issues that do interfere with comprehension on which
ESL/EFL teachers need to focus.
Prescriptive versus Descriptive Grammar 13
Descriptive Grammar
Descriptive grammar rules, in contrast to prescriptive rules, describe how adult
native speakers actually use their language. From this perspective, grammar is what
organizes language into meaningful, systematic patterns. These rules are inherent
to each language and are generally not conscious rules. However, they are readily
observable for those interested in looking. Descriptive grammar, unlike prescriptive
grammar, does not say, “this is right” or “this is wrong.”
Some people think that descriptive grammarmeans saying that everything is right
and nothing is wrong. What we must consider is the purpose for which a speaker is
using language. If a person is at a white-collar job interview or sending in a college
application, using stigmatized language forms is inappropriate. On the other hand,
if the person is among a group of peers, using a different variety of language is
part of in-group acceptance and identity. This is not to say that there should be
no grammar rulebooks, manuals of style, or standards of usage; on the contrary,
there is a need for standards, especially in formal language contexts and when we
are teaching English to non-native speakers. What ESL/EFL teachers must do is
develop an awareness, especially as learners become more proficient, that there are
variations of prescriptive grammar rules, some of which are more acceptable in
certain contexts than others.
Why do I as an ESL/EFL teacher need to know the difference between prescriptive
and descriptive grammar?
ESL/EFL teachers need to understand what learners need to know in order to
learn English. The needs of these learners are very different from those of native
speakers. Native speakers and textbooks geared to them focus on prescriptive
grammar. ESL/EFL learners, on the other hand, need to learn structures and
forms that native speakers know as part of their innate knowledge of English.
The vast majority of what ESL/EFL learners need to learn is descriptive grammar.
ESL/EFL teachers must also consider why students are learning the language,
which errors are more serious than others, and on which aspects of grammar to
focus. In this text we will be focusing on the grammatical rules and grammatical
structures that ESL/EFL learners need to learn in order to communicate in
English.
Why do I need to know grammar?
For teachers of ESL/EFL learners, a knowledge of how English works is essential.
Teachers need to be able to talk about how sentences are constructed,
about the types of words and word groups that make up sentences, and about
the functions of these words and word groups within sentences and in larger
contexts.
With this knowledge, teachers can help their students understand the language
and know what their students need to learn in order to acquire it. Without knowing
the essential components, as well as the complexities of the language in question, it
14 1 What is Grammar?
is difficult to understand what learners actually need to know in order to learn the
new language.
What do you mean by the “complexities of language?”
The next two Discovery Activities introduce a few of the structures and forms that
we will discuss in greater detail throughout the book. These are examples of the
“complexities” that native speakers knowintuitively, yet that ESL/EFL learners need
to learn explicitly. After you have finished Discovery Activity 4, check your answers
with those found at the end of the chapter in the section labeled “Answer Key.”
Discovery Activity 4: Verbs
Look at the following sentences.
a. Find the verbs and underline them.
b. How would you explain these verbs in these sentences to a learner of
English?
1. Many people don’t like meat.
2. Do you drive to New York?
3. She’s lived in the country since last year.
4. I’m about to buy a new car.
5. The flight is leaving in the next 20 minutes.
After you have checked your answers to Discovery Activity 4, try Discovery
Activity 5. Think about how you would explain the italicized words to an ESL/EFL
student. Discuss your answers with your classmates; then compare your responses
with those found in the Answer Key. This will then conclude our introduction to
grammar.
Discovery Activity 5: Other Parts of Speech
Look at the following sentences.
How would you explain the italicized words in these sentences to a learner of
English?
1. The child painted a big, beautiful, wooden box. but not:
The child painted a wooden beautiful big box.
2. The pencil I have doesn’t have an eraser.
3. That is a stone fence.
4. Mary drove fast but stopped quickly at the red light.
Summary 15
Summary
Linguists versus Grammarians
A linguist’s definition of grammar is A grammarian’s definition of grammar is
a system or the “blueprints” for creating
language
the written rules governing when to use which
forms or structures
the shared rules (patterns) in native
speakers’ minds that allow them to generate
unique utterances; native speakers’
shared mental rules
something you follow in order to use the language
correctly there are different grammars shared by
different groups of speakers; because all
languages and variations are systematic in
their generation of utterances; all grammars
are viewed as valid that one particular variety of grammar is considered
the “standard” descriptive prescriptive
A linguist’s purpose in examining grammar
is to
A grammarian’s purpose in examining grammar
is tounderstand the mental or subconscious
rules shared by different groups of native
speakers. These rules are learned as part
of the process of growing up as a native
speaker of a given language. describe the system and blueprints. understand the shared elements (rules) that
make variations still belong to one language
versus another different language;
i.e. what makes English not German or
Chinese.learn which variations are used by which
groups and in which situations.understand which variations are lessacceptable
or stigmatized in which situations
and why. learn which changes are taking place and
whyfocus on discrete items and specific rules of
use (“usage rules”). determine what word, phrase or construction
is or is not correct according to a particular
usage or style book, or person (usually selfappointed
“language mavens” or “language
gurus”).determine grammar “rules” which must often
be taught. These rules often exist on a continuum
of acceptability because language
changes and some usage or style books, or
language gurus are more reluctant to accept
change than others.
debate what must be used when and why
based on what a particular usage or style book,
or person determines is correct.
Standard American English
is that which most style and usage books and speakers recognize as “correct.” There is no
language academy or formal government institution decreeing or legislating “correctness” for
American English.
exists on a continuum of “correctness.” Not all style and usage books, and not all “language
gurus” agree on what is “correct” because language changes. Some grammarians are slower to
accept change than others.
16 1 What is Grammar?
(continued)
Standard American English
Only languages that no longer have native speakers do not change. These are referred to as
“dead” languages. Examples of this are Latin and Sanskrit.
The English that is taught to non-native speakers is recognized as Standard English because the
grammar, for the most part, reflects formally educated native speakers’ shared rules.
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